Carbonatites - Economic Importance and A Strategically Important Source Rock.

Carbonatite (By Eurico Zimbres Zimbres - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Carbonatites are some of the rarest igneous rocks on the planet, comprising less than 1% of all identified igneous systems. Despite their rarity, they are highly significant in geology and resource economics. Unlike most igneous rocks, which primarily consist of silicate minerals like feldspars and pyroxenes, carbonatites are mainly made up of carbonate minerals, typically calcite, dolomite, or ankerite (refer to the Figure above).

Their formation is associated with minor degrees of partial melting of mantle rocks that have an unusually high carbon dioxide content, resulting in magmas with unique geochemical characteristics (Figure 1).

Partial melting of the mantle occurs when only a portion of the mantle rock melts due to changes in temperature, pressure, or the presence of volatiles like water. This process generates magma with a composition different from the original mantle, leading to the formation of new crust through volcanic and tectonic activity.

These magmas typically ascend and solidify in shallow intrusions, creating ring complexes, plugs, dikes, or sills, often linked to alkaline igneous provinces (Figure 1). Chemically, carbonatites are rich in alkalis (sodium, potassium), volatile elements (including fluorine, chlorine, and carbon dioxide), and trace elements that are economically important.

Figure 1: A schematic representation of the potential formation of Carbonatites. (source: [1])

This unusual chemistry explains why carbonatites are such critical hosts for strategic resources. Globally significant deposits like Bayan Obo in China and Mountain Pass in the USA are the world’s most important rare earth element suppliers, while Brazil’s Araxá and Catalão deposits provide the bulk of the world’s niobium (Figure 2).

Other carbonatites, such as Palabora in South Africa, are mined for copper and phosphates, supporting industries as diverse as high-tech manufacturing and agriculture.

Figure 2: Distribution of carbonatites and carbonatite-related REE deposits, including deposits in production and exploration targets discussed in this paper (source: [5] modified from Woolley and Kjarsgaard [2], Liu and Hou [3] and Verplanck et al. [4]).

Because they occur so rarely yet contain such concentrated supplies of strategic commodities, carbonatites are of immense interest in both academic geology and global geopolitics, especially as nations compete for secure sources of rare earths and other critical minerals.

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Strategic Economic Importance of Carbonatites.

Carbonatites, though geologically rare, sit at the heart of some of the most pressing economic and geopolitical issues of the 21st century because they are the primary source of several critical raw materials. Perhaps most importantly, they are the dominant host rocks for rare earth elements (REEs), which are indispensable in modern technologies such as permanent magnets for wind turbines, electric vehicle motors, smartphones, defence systems, and advanced electronics.

For instance, the Bayan Obo deposit in Inner Mongolia, China, is not only the world’s largest carbonatite but also the single largest source of REEs globally, giving China a long-standing strategic advantage in controlling REE supply chains. Similarly, the Mountain Pass mine in California—also carbonatite-hosted—remains the United States’ only major REE production centre.

In addition to REEs, carbonatites are the world’s primary suppliers of niobium, a metal critical for producing high-strength, lightweight steels used in infrastructure, pipelines, aerospace, and defence. Brazil’s Araxá and Catalão carbonatite complexes together supply over 80% of global niobium demand, effectively making Brazil the near-monopoly producer of this metal. Such concentration of supply in just a handful of carbonatite-hosted deposits has major implications for global markets and supply security.

Carbonatites are also important sources of phosphates, a cornerstone of global agriculture. Deposits such as Palabora in South Africa and others in Africa and Brazil provide feedstock for fertiliser production, underpinning global food security. Some carbonatites further contribute secondary products like copper, uranium, fluorite, and titanium-bearing minerals, adding to their economic significance.

From a strategic perspective, the rarity of carbonatites, combined with their unique role as suppliers of minerals central to renewable energy, advanced manufacturing, and defence, makes them “choke points” in global supply chains. Nations with large carbonatite-hosted deposits, such as China and Brazil, wield disproportionate influence in these markets, while others, such as the US, Europe, and Australia, are actively exploring or attempting to develop alternative deposits to reduce supply risks. This dynamic ties carbonatites directly into the broader narrative of geopolitical competition between the West and China, as well as international efforts to secure reliable, ethical, and diversified sources of critical minerals.

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Timeline of the Strategic Economic Importance of Carbonatites.

• Early 20th Century – Phosphate and Fertilisers

The first strategic use of carbonatites emerged in agriculture. Deposits rich in phosphate were mined to produce fertilisers, which became critical in supporting global food production during the agricultural revolutions of the early to mid-20th century. African carbonatite complexes such as Tundulu (Malawi) and others in Brazil played roles in regional phosphate supply. At this stage, carbonatites were viewed largely through the lens of supporting food security.

• Mid-20th Century – Rare Earth Elements Enter the Scene

During the 1950s–1960s, the strategic importance of carbonatites began to shift with the discovery that they contained highly concentrated rare earth elements (REEs). The Mountain Pass carbonatite in California became a major global REE supplier, particularly during the Cold War, when rare earths were increasingly recognised as vital for defence technologies, including sonar, radar, and missile guidance systems. This period marked the first recognition of carbonatites as critical mineral resources beyond agriculture.

• Late 20th Century – Niobium and Steelmaking

By the 1970s–1980s, carbonatites in Brazil (Araxá and Catalão) rose to prominence as the primary global suppliers of niobium. With niobium’s unique ability to strengthen steel without adding weight, it became indispensable in pipelines, construction, aerospace, and automotive industries. Brazil’s dominance over niobium supply—rooted in carbonatite deposits—remains effectively unchallenged today, giving it a rare position of near-monopoly in a globally critical metal.

• 1990s–2000s – China’s Dominance Through Bayan Obo

The Bayan Obo carbonatite complex in Inner Mongolia transformed global REE supply dynamics. By heavily investing in mining and downstream processing, China established near-total control of REE markets by the 1990s. This dominance was reinforced when Mountain Pass production declined due to environmental and cost pressures. REEs became essential for consumer electronics and early clean energy technologies (e.g., wind turbines), cementing carbonatites’ status as central to the modern economy.

• 2010s – Critical Minerals and Geopolitics

As renewable energy and electric vehicles gained momentum, carbonatites gained renewed strategic importance. REEs, niobium, and phosphates became recognised as critical minerals by many governments. China’s restriction of REE exports in 2010, which sent shockwaves through global markets, highlighted the vulnerability of supply chains tied so closely to carbonatite deposits controlled by one nation. This triggered efforts in the US, Australia, and Europe to diversify REE sources and develop projects outside of China.

• 2020s – Energy Transition and Supply Chain Security

Today, carbonatites are at the centre of the energy transition narrative. REEs from carbonatites are vital for permanent magnets in wind turbines and EV motors, while niobium strengthens materials in renewable energy infrastructure. Phosphates remain crucial for global agriculture. As geopolitical tensions between China and the West intensify, carbonatites represent not just mineral wealth but strategic leverage in critical supply chains. Countries such as Australia, Canada, Tanzania, and Greenland are actively exploring or advancing carbonatite-hosted projects to diversify global supply and reduce reliance on China and Brazil.

In short: The strategic importance of carbonatites has evolved from fertiliser security (phosphates) → to Cold War defence (REEs) → to industrial infrastructure (niobium) → to global tech and clean energy (REEs & niobium). Investors are generally unaware of Carbonatites and their implications to food security, energy security, and geopolitical competition, making them some of the most strategically significant rocks on Earth.

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Australian Examples of Carbonatites.

Carbonatites are genuinely rare in Australia (Figure 3), but they’re not random. Broadly speaking, it is widely felt that the known occurrences (roughly a dozen-plus to ~28 depending on classification) fall into three broad belts: East Yilgarn, Halls Creek, and Arunta. Like all facts historically, it is always open to changes, but the broad belts align themselves to a specific known geology which ties carbonatites to long-lived alkaline magmatism and deep mantle plumbing—exactly the settings that feed REE, Nb and P systems.

Figure 3: Map of identified carbonatites in Australia. (source: [6])

(1) Lake Machattie (Collerson et al., 2016), (2) Mulligan (Collerson et al., 2016), (3) Walloway (Nelson et al., 1988), (4) Euralia (Jaques, 2008), (5) Oolgelima (Swain, 2022), (6) Mordor Igneous Complex (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (7) MudTank Carbonatite Complex (Chandler and Gonz´alez- A´lvarez, 2022), (8) Mount Bleechmore (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (9) Nolans Bore (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (10) Yungal Carbonatite (Chandler and Gonz´alez-A´lvarez, 2022), (11) Copperhead Igneous Complex  (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (12) Cummins Range (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (13) Stansmore (Lycaon Resources, 2022), (14) Pachpadra (Rincon Resources, 2022), (15) Mick Well Carbonatite Complex (Kingfisher Mining, 2022), (16) Mundine Well Dolerite (Chandler and Gonz´alezA´lvarez, 2022), (17) Gifford Creek Carbonatite Complex (Pirajno et al., 2017), (18) Yangibana Granite (Pirajno et al., 2014), (19) Granny Smith (Chandler and Gonz´alez-A´lvarez, 2022), (20) Wallaby Syenite (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (21) Mount Weld (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (22) Redlings (Marquee Resources, 2022), (23) Mons Carbonatite (Nimy Resources, 2023), (24) Hines Hill (White Cliff Resources, 2022), (25) Ponton (Chandler and Gonz´alez-A´lvarez, 2022), (26) Cundeelee (Chandler and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, 2022), (27) Leviathan (Strategic Elements, 2022), (28) Moonera (Sensore,2022).

East Yilgarn (WA):

The headline act is Mount Weld, a Proterozoic carbonatite complex later weathered into one of the world’s richest LREE laterites—a classic case of supergene enrichment over a carbonatite source. Regional geochronology pins the alkaline–carbonatite event at ~2.03 Ga; the ore is dominantly LREE-rich, consistent with global carbonatite signatures. Nearby Ponton Creek/Cundeelee sits in the same alkaline province and reinforces the belt-scale picture.

Halls Creek (WA):

Cummins Range is a zoned, ~2 × 2 km carbonatite pipe with REE-phosphate-niobium mineralisation. The current (2023–24) resource work repositions it as one of Australia’s largest undeveloped REE–P systems (company-reported MRE in the ~520 Mt @ ~0.31–0.32% TREO and ~4.6% P₂O₅ range; NdPr ~22% of TREO). This is the belt where “pipe-scale” geometry, phosphate association and Nb credits all line up with global carbonatite analogues.

Arunta (NT):

Mud Tank is the country’s classic textbook carbonatite—730 Ma lenses emplaced along a ductile shear zone, with a broad fenite halo and a long history of vermiculite and zircon (including record-sized crystals) activity. It anchors the Arunta belt alongside carbonatite-related alkaline intrusions (e.g., Mordor), showing that REE fertility here is as much about structure (shear zones) as it is about magma chemistry.

Figure 4: A presentation slide from WA1 Resources Limited, which highlights the value proposition of the Luni Niobium deposit.

The whole Australian carbonatite landscape changed in November 2022 with the discovery of the Luni deposit by  WA1 Resources Limited (ASX:WA1) (Figure 4). This sparked the realisation that the prospective Arunta complex has been harbouring immense value for stakeholders in the region (Figure 5). Encounter Resources Limited (ASX: ENR), which holds the majority of the complex (Figure 5), appears to be holding all the upside and recently declared that its tenement holding could be a world-class carbonatite province. Encounter's exploration results indicate a suite of hybrid styles of carbonatites, which now include potential sources of gold and copper.

Figure 5: The carbonatite province that Encounter Resources is promoting, which would change the scale of value if this were to become a reality.

As an exploration geologist, I am very excited to see what Encounter discover as the Arunta complex has always been my favourite place to explore as it has been largely untapped for decades due mainly to its remoteness. Regions such as this and that of the Western Gawler Craton in South Australia have had little exploration work till now.

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Why Mount Weld, Cummins Range, and Gifford Creek/Yangibana matter.

• Mount Weld demonstrates the weathering-upgrade model: a fertile carbonatite becomes tier-one ore after tropical–subtropical lateritisation concentrates LREE near surface—an exploration clue for other buried carbonatites on cratonic margins.

• Cummins Range shows pipe-scale tonnage with P & Nb associations, a hallmark of many productive carbonatites globally and a potential multi-commodity value stack.

• Gifford Creek/Yangibana (Gascoyne) is crucial scientifically: ferro-to calc-carbonatite dykes, fenites and magnetite–biotite intrusions feed a district of LREE “ironstones.” Understanding the carbonatite plumbing has reframed the ironstones from odd veins to carbonatite-linked REE systems, tightening targeting models for HREE/LREE zoning and structural controls.

For investors on the ASX, Australia’s carbonatites are few, but they are now lining up as immense value creation as the global minerals exploration players are dealing with geopolitical issues and increasing jurisdiction hurdles as developing regions are playing the nationalisation card.

I think that the playbook for stakeholders looking for these styles of mineralisation should start looking at the alkaline provinces, and begin to look at the geological indicators such as fenite halos and carbonatite dykes, and supergene processes that can transform a “fertile but subtle” intrusion into a genuine orebody. In other words—small footprints, big optionality.

In Australia, these provinces are present and here are some of the known areas described below in greater detail:

Western Australia (WA)

• Mount Weld (Laverton, Yilgarn Craton) — Classic Proterozoic carbonatite plug (~4 km across) with world-class REE laterite; carbonatite dykes extend kilometres beyond the plug.

• Ponton Creek / Cundeelee (east of Kalgoorlie) — Large Paleoproterozoic intrusive complex (~10 km) with ultramafic core and apatite-rich carbonatite veins; part of the Eastern Goldfields alkaline suite.

• Gifford Creek Carbonatite Complex (Capricorn Orogen, “Yangibana district”) — Mesoproterozoic alkaline–carbonatite system (calcite→ferrocarbonatites, magnetite–biotite dykes, fenites); hosts/feeds the Yangibana LREE “ironstone” bodies.

• Cummins Range (Halls Creek Orogen) — Composite, zoned carbonatite stock (~2 km) with REE–P–Nb mineralisation; one of Australia’s largest undeveloped REE–phosphate systems

• Copperhead occurrence (Halls Creek area) — Small alkaline intrusion with albitite and local “carbonatite” breccia pods; Paleoproterozoic age (~1821 Ma).

• Yungul carbonatite dykes (Speewah, East Kimberley) — Narrow carbonatite dykes spatially linked to the Speewah fluorite system along the Greenvale Fault.

• Granny Smith & Wallaby (near Laverton) — Carbonate-rich dykes/veins reported in the gold camps; some described as late/post-ore carbonatites or debated “carbonatites” related to syenites.

Northern Territory (NT)

• Mud Tank (Harts Range/Strangways) — First recognised Australian carbonatite; lensy bodies with a strong fenite halo; vermiculite mined; famous for zircon.

• Mordor Igneous Complex (near Mud Tank) — Alkaline complex with carbonate-rich veins and dykes (carbonatite-related, older than Mud Tank).

South Australia (SA)

• Walloway (Eurelia/Orroroo area) — Small dykes and plugs of carbonatite within a Jurassic kimberlite–lamprophyre field at the Gawler margin; active modern re-evaluation

• Oolgelima “Intrusive Complex” (north of Coober Pedy) — Investigated with a carbonatite model (prospective/under study rather than confirmed classic carbonatite). Drilling results of 78m @ 0.31% TREO (incl. 6m @ 1.1% TREO). It is being interpreted as carbonatite-related REE mineralisation tied to Proterozoic rifting.

• Mount Brady — Carbonates present, but SA government notes they are crustally derived (i.e., not mantle-derived carbonatite). Recent work has produced assays of 0.9% Cu, 2% P, and 1000 ppm REE. Accordingly, the carbonates appear crustally derived, not mantle carbonatites, but linked to multiple mineralising events.

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Australian Unexplored Regions for Carbonatites?

As Australian government mineral resource agencies begin to release data for potential mineral discoveries, the rush to find these areas is increasing with each dataset release. I came across a recent presentation, "Where are South Australia's Carbonatites ? - Dr Mitchell Bockmann - Geological Survey of South Australia - Discovery Day" by Dr Mitchell Bockmann.

Recent work by Dr Mitchell Bockmann revisits key sites such as Walloway and Mount Brady (See Figure 3), highlighting both past observations and new insights. The results suggest South Australia has a role to play in the carbonatite narrative, particularly at a time when critical mineral supply chains are front and centre of geopolitical conversations.

According to Dr Bockmann, South Australia has flagged additional prospects in South Australia, such as Billeroo North, Umberatana Diatreme, and Mount Brady. Geochronology across the northern Gawler Craton shows repeated thermal and mineralising events after the 1590 Ma Hiltaba–GRV event.

Figure 6: Potential new regions of carbonatites to be discovered in Australia.

Geological Context

• Walloway: A diapiric structure intruding Neoproterozoic–Cambrian sediments, with multiple narrow dykes carrying carbonatitic minerals such as perovskite, apatite, zirconolite, and calcite. Geochemistry and mineralogy suggest a carbonated kimberlite parent magma that fractionated into both kimberlite and carbonatite.

• Oolgelima: Alkaline intrusive complex with drill intersections confirming REE enrichment. Strongly tied to regional mantle structures and the 1460 Ma rifting event in the Northern Gawler Craton.

• Mount Brady: Previously considered a skarn, now reinterpreted with carbonate-rich assemblages. However, geochemical signatures point to a crustal carbonate source, complicating its classification as a true carbonatite.

Exploration Potential

South Australia’s carbonatite potential remains underexplored. The confirmed REE–Nb values at Walloway, the promising drill results at Oolgelima, and the polymetallic footprint at Mount Brady highlight an emerging opportunity.

Other targets, such as Billeroo North (alkaline complex) and the Umberatana Diatreme (carbonatitic diatreme with alkaline rocks), add further prospectivity. These sites demonstrate that mantle-linked magmatism across the state may hold untapped critical mineral systems.

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Samso Concluding Comments

Mineral exploration is always about the holy grail of discovery; however, in the fast-paced world of the ASX, it is not always the case. The influence of capital required and the ROI on the capital is primarily the major determinant of whether discoveries are made. For those who are in that space of having the passion to seek these discoveries, we are always torn between pleasing that capital requirement and the techniques required to make those discoveries.

To add to the confusion and frustrations, the path for mineral exploration is largely determined by the "flavour" of the moment, which ultimately determines which type of projects are funded or not. Carbonatites are now in the limelight, but it has been pretty much unknown prior to the Luni discovery by WA1 Resources. If anything, this discovery had brought the attention of ASX capital towards the search for Carbonatites. Companies such as Encounter Resources Limited are now 100% geared to the search and development of their Carbonatite province (Figure 5).

Most ASX investors within the micro-small cap space would not have understood the word carbonatites, but they know about the projects that are hosted by this source rock. Figure 6 clearly identifies numerous projects that are associated with carbonatites, but I would say most investors do not know and, in some way, don't care much about the technicalities of what the source rocks are for their investments. They just care about the ROI, which makes sense, too.

For me, as a practising explorer in Australia, South Australia’s carbonatite story is one of hidden potential waiting for modern exploration to unlock. Walloway offers a direct REE–Nb opportunity, Oolgelima strengthens the case for Proterozoic carbonatite-linked REEs, while Mount Brady demonstrates the complexity of crust–mantle interactions in mineralising systems.

With critical minerals firmly on the global agenda, South Australia’s carbonatite-related systems should transition from academic curiosity to strategic exploration targets. For investors and explorers, the key takeaway is simple: there is still room for discovery in Australia’s backyard.

Figure 7: Interpreted solid geology of the Gawler Craton and Curnamona Province. The Olympic Domain, Central Gawler Gold Province, major IOCG deposits and U–Pb crystallisation age data (Ma) for the Hiltaba Suite and similar-aged intrusives are shown. See Tiddy and Giles (2020) for data sources. Reprinted from Tiddy and Giles (2020, fig 2) with permission from Elsevier. (source: [14])

As a director and shareholder of Taiton Resources Limited (ASX: T88), the concept of carbonatites is new, but having researched what is happening in the province of the West Arunta with WA1 Resources and Encounter Resources, I am encouraged to be thinking about what we have at our Yogi prospect at the Highway project in South Australia.

You can read the announcement here: 18th September 2024 - Gravity Anomalism up to 6 mGal Support Highway IOCG Targets

The basis of the interpretation is that there is a strong gravity anomaly (Figure 8) that is adjacent to a mag high, which is an IOCG-style scenario; however, as I have mentioned, Encounter does not have as strong a gravity requirement as what is at Luni for WA1 Resources.

Figure 8: Yogi residual Bouguer gravity anomaly image over subset inversion model target area. (source: Taiton Resources Limited).

The undeniable fact is that Taiton Resources has an extremely strong gravity target sitting below, and it's a target that needs to be drilled. The density source in my opinion, can only be something that is a carbonatite source or from an IOCG-style source, namely haematite; however, the question is if there is mineralisation and if so, then is it economical.

Readers should also not that the alternative is also just as plausible and that is the target is just another uneconomical "blob" of something. There is always a binary result and for those people who have worked in the realm of mineral exploration, they will undeniably affirm this potential result from drilling the any Yogi-style target.

Figure 9: Yogi prospect long-section of modelled denser core; 3.17 g/cm³ gravity iso-shell (magenta body), within broader dense body 2.97 g/cm³ gravity iso-shell (green wireframe) with modelled 0.025 SI magnetic iso-shell (pink body) interpreted to represent a potential intrusion. (source: Taiton Resources Limited).

The compelling nature of this Yogi target is highlighted in Figure 9. Seasoned explorers will say that this is a great target that should be drilled. As much as it is a lottery for Taiton, it is without a doubt a target many explorers will find it hard to walk away without testing it.

From a geological point of view, we can learn a lot from the Luni project (Figures 4 and 5) and what Encounter is discovering in their region. The Luni deposit was largely driven by a magnetic and gravity association; however, I am told that the carbonatites discovered on the other side of the tenement boundary blend itself to more of a hybrid combination of factors and have a lesser gravity signature.

When you look at Figure 7, there is a distinct separation of the Gawler Gold Province and the Olympic Dam Cu-Au Province, but as a self-proclaimed proponent of this art of geological exploration, I will simply say that there are very few mineral deposits that have the same signature of any kind. Both WA1 and Encounter thought they were seeking an IOCG-style deposit; however, both have now got something drastically different.

The Paris Silver deposit was discovered in what was not supposed to be ideal for that style of mineralisation, but that is another enigma of past thinking being too "pigeon-holed" into types and styles and not really understanding the dynamic, mechanical and geochemical nature of metal mineralisation.

For those interested, one should check out the latest Coffee with Samso with Jon Hronsky, who is a seasoned mineral explorer and is currently a Non-Executive Director of Encounter Resources Limited. In this Coffee with Samso, we talked in great detail about the Carbonatite movement, which is now potentially another boost to Australia's dominance of mineral resources. Note that Jon is always referring to his concept of Mineral System exploration and I am a firm believer of his thoughts. Find the system, find the deep structures that can deliver the mineralisation and find the depositional environment and you got yourself a deposit.

As usual, I guide readers to look at this Samso Insight as my thoughts and views over the last three decades in the industry. In regard to my thoughts on the Yogi prospect, it is driven deeply by my passion as a mineral explorationist with a sense of satisfaction that this is a project driven by myself and the team at Taiton Resources. A discovery would be a fulfilling part of my twilight path in the coming years.

Always DYOR and happy investing.

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Reference:

1. Where are South Australia's Carbonatites? - Dr Mitchell Bockmann - Geological Survey of South Australia - Discovery Day

2. Woolley, A.R.; Kjarsgaard, B.A. Carbonatite occurrences of the world: Map and database. Geol. Surv. Can. Open File 2008, 5796, 1–21.

3. Liu, Y.; Hou, Z.Q. A synthesis of mineralization styles with an integrated genetic model of carbonatite-syenite-hosted REE deposits in the Cenozoic Mianning-Dechang REE metallogenic belt, the eastern Tibetan Plateau, southwestern China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2017, 137, 35–79.

4. Verplanck, P.L.; Mariano, A.N.; Mariano, A., Jr. Rare Earth Element Ore Geology of Carbonatites. In Rare Earth and Critical Elements in Ore Deposits; Verplanck, P.L., Hitzman, M.W., Eds.; Soc Economic Geologists, Inc.: Littleton, CO, USA, 2016; pp. 5–32.

5. Carbonatite-Related REE Deposits: An Overview by Zhen-Yu Wang, Hong-Rui Fan, Lingli Zhou, Kui-Feng Yang and Hai-Dong She

6. Arianne Ford ᵃ,*, David Huston ᵃ, Jonathan Cloutier ᵃ,ᵇ, Michael Doublier ᵃ, Anthony Schofield ᵃ, Yanbo Cheng ᵃ, Eloise Beyer ᵃ A national-scale mineral potential assessment for carbonatite-related rare earth element mineral systems in Australia. ᵃ Geoscience Australia, Canberra, ACT, Australiaᵇ CODES, University of Tasmania, Australia, Ore Geology Reviews 161 (2023) 105658

7. Collerson, K. D., Hutton, L., and Murphy, D., 2016, The Diamantina Alkaline Province in western Queensland - exploration potential and geodynamic significance, in Digging Deeper 2016 Extended Abstracts, Queensland Geological Record 2016/06: Brisbane, Geological Survey of Queensland, p. 6.

8. Nelson, D.R., Chivas, A.R., Chappell, B.W., McCulloch, M.T., 1988. Geochemical and isotopic systematics in carbonatites and implications for the evolution of ocean island sources. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52 (1), 1–17.

9. Jaques, A. L., 2008, Australian carbonatites: their resources and geodynamic setting, 9th International Kimberlite Conference, Volume Extended Abstracts 9, p. 1-3.

10. Swain, G., 2022. A ‘Carbonatite’ Model for the Oolgelima Intrusive Complex: South Australia’s next critical minerals project Sub22 Conference: Adelaide. CSIRO, Australia.

11. Chandler, R. and Gonza´lez-A´lvarez, I., 2022, Australian carbonatites: insights on geological characteristics, exploration proxies and national prospectivity for undiscovered carbonatites and associated critical metal mineralisation: CSIRO, EP2022-5026, 63 pp.

12. Pirajno, F., Gonz´alez-A´lvarez, I., Border, A., and Porter, M., 2017, Mount Weld and Gifford Creek rare earth elements carbonatites, in Phillips, N., ed., Australian Ore Deposits, Monograph 32: Australia, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,

    p. 163-166.

13. Pirajno, F., Gonz´alez-A´lvarez, I., Chen, W., Kyser, K.T., Simonetti, A., Leduc, E., leGras, M., 2014. The Gifford Creek Ferrocarbonatite Complex, Gascoyne Province, Western Australia: Associated fenitic alteration and a putative link with the ~1075 Ma Warakurna LIP. Lithos 202-203, 100–119.

14. Caroline Tiddy and David Giles, Suprasubduction zone model in eastern Australia, MESA Journal 93, pages 32–46, Published October 2020 Mineral Exploration Cooperative Research Centre (MinEx CRC) and Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia

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Samso is a trusted platform that equips dedicated investors with up-to-date industry knowledge and insights from top CEOs and thought leaders. By staying informed on business advancements and market trends, investors can enhance their financial decisions through a combination of expert guidance and their own research.